Health and Safety at Work Qualification

What kind of people take the NEBOSH Health and Safety at Work qualification?

Tutor: Anilkumar TS Menon CMIOSH FIIRSM

ASHEI

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OFFSHORE OIL RIG AND PLATFORM TYPES

RIG AND PLATFORM TYPES

Different types of offshore oil rigs and platforms are used depending on the offshore oil/gas field water-depth and situation. Rigs are used for the drilling of the wells and platforms are installed in the field for extracting oil/gas operation. Main types of rigs and platforms are briefly explained as follows: Drilling for natural oil/gas offshore, in some instances hundreds of miles away from the nearest landmass, poses a number of different challenges from drilling onshore. With drilling at sea, the sea floor can sometimes be thousands of feet below sea level. Therefore, while with onshore drilling the ground provides a platform from which to drill, at sea an artificial drilling platform must be constructed.

Movable offshore drilling platforms/rigs

There are two types of offshore drilling rings/platforms. The first type is movable offshore drilling rigs that can be moved from one place to another and the second type is the fixed rigs/platforms.

Drilling barges

Drilling barges are used mostly for inland, shallow water drilling. This typically takes place in lakes, swamps, rivers, and canals. Drilling barges are large, floating platforms, which must be towed by tugboat from location to location. Suitable for still, shallow waters, drilling barges are not able to withstand the water movement experienced in large open water situations.

Jackup platforms/rigs

Jackup rigs are similar to drilling barges, with one difference. Once a jackup rig is towed to the drilling site, three or four ‘legs’ are lowered until they rest on the sea bottom. This allows the working platform to rest above the surface of the water, as opposed to a floating barge. However, jackup rigs are suitable only for shallower waters, as extending these legs down too deeply would be impractical. This rig type can only operate to 500 feet in the depth of water. These rigs are typically safer to operate than drilling barges, as their working platform is elevated above the water level.

Submersible platforms/rigs

Submersible rigs, also suitable for shallow water, are like jackup rigs in that they come in contact with the ocean or lake floor. These rigs consist of platforms with two hulls positioned on top of one another. The upper hull contains the living quarters for the crew, as well as the actual drilling platform. The lower hull works much like the outer hull in a submarine – when the platform is being moved from one place to another, the lower hull is filled with air – making the entire rig buoyant. When the rig is positioned over the drill site, the air is let out of the lower hull, and the rig submerges to the sea or lake floor. This type of rig has the advantage of mobility in the water; however, once again its use is limited to shallow water areas.

Semi-submersible platforms/rigs

This is an offshore oil rig that has a floating drill unit that includes columns and pontoons that, if flooded with water, will cause the pontoons to submerge to a depth that is predetermined. Semi-submersible rigs are the most common type of offshore drilling rigs, combining the advantages of submersible rigs with the ability to drill in deep water. Semi-submersible rigs work on the same principle as submersible rigs; through the ‘inflating’ and ‘deflating’ of its lower hull. The rig is partially submerged, but still floats above the drill site. When drilling, the lower hull, filled with water, provides stability to the rig. Semi-submersible rigs are generally held in place by huge anchors, each weighing upwards of ten tons. These anchors, combined with the submerged portion of the rig, ensure that the platform is stable and safe enough to be used in turbulent offshore waters.

Semi-submersible rigs can also be kept in place by the use of dynamic positioning.

Semis-submersible rigs can be used to drill in much deeper water than the rigs mentioned above. Now with a leap in technology, depths of up to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) can be achieved safely and easily. This type of rig platform will drill a hole in the seabed and can be quickly moved to new locations.

Drillships

Drillships are exactly as they sound: ships designed to carry out drilling operations. These boats are specially designed to carry drilling platforms out to deep-sea locations. A typical drillship will have, in addition to all of the equipment normally found on a large ocean ship, a drilling platform and derrick located on the middle of its deck. In addition, drillships contain a hole called a “moonpool”, extending right through the ship down through the hull, which allows for the drill string to extend through the boat, down into the water. This offshore oil rig can drill in very deep waters.

Drillships use ‘dynamic positioning’ systems. Drillships are equipped with electric motors on the underside of the ships hull, capable of propelling the ship in any direction. These motors are integrated into the ships computer system, which uses satellite positioning technology, in conjunction with sensors located on the drilling template, to ensure that the ship is directly above the drill site at all times.

Fixed platforms

In certain instances, in shallow water, it is possible to physically attach a platform to the sea floor. This is what is shown above as a fixed platform rig. The ‘legs’ are constructed of concrete or steel, extending down from the platform, and fixed to the seafloor with piles. With some concrete structures, the weight of the legs and seafloor platform is so great, that they do not have to be physically attached to the seafloor, but instead simply rest on their own mass. There are many possible designs for these fixed, permanent platforms. The main advantages of these types of platforms are their stability; as they are attached to the sea floor, there is limited exposure to movement due to wind and water forces. However, these platforms cannot be used in extremely deep water; it simply is not economical to build legs that long.

Template (jacket) platforms

This type of fixed platform is the one usually installed in the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Mexico, Nigeria, and California shorelines and is made of steel (Sadeghi 1989, 2001). Template platforms mainly consist of jacket, decks and piles.

All of the petroleum platforms installed in the Persian Gulf are of the Template (Jacket) type. At the present time about 145 template platforms belonging to Iran and about 130 template platforms belonging to Arabian countries are installed in the Persian Gulf. Figure 2 shows one template platform.

Compliant Towers (Tower platforms)

Compliant towers are much like fixed platforms. They consist of a narrow tower, attached to a foundation on the seafloor and extending up to the platform. This tower is flexible, as opposed to the relatively rigid legs of a fixed platform. This flexibility allows it to operate in much deeper water, as it can ‘absorb’ much of the pressure exerted on it by the wind and sea. Despite its flexibility, the compliant tower system is strong enough to withstand hurricane conditions.

Seastar platforms

Seastar platforms are like miniature tension leg platforms. The platform consists of a floating rig, much like the semi-submersible type discussed above. A lower hull is filled with water when drilling, which increases the stability of the platform against wind and water movement. In addition to this semi-submersible rig, however, Seastar platforms also incorporate the tension leg system employed in larger platforms. Tension legs are long, hollow tendons that extend from the seafloor to the floating platform. These legs are kept under constant tension, and do not allow for any up or down movement of the platform. However, their flexibility does allow for side-to-side motion, which allows the platform to withstand the force of the ocean and wind, without breaking the legs off. Seastar platforms are typically used for smaller deep-water reservoirs, when it is not economical to build a larger platform. They can operate in water depths of up to 3,500 feet.

Floating production systems

Floating production systems are essentially semi-submersible drilling rigs, as discussed above, except that they contain petroleum production equipment, as well as drilling equipment. Ships can also be used as floating production systems. The platforms can be kept in place through large, heavy anchors, or through the dynamic positioning system used by drillships. With a floating production system, once the drilling has been completed, the wellhead is actually attached to the seafloor, instead of up on the platform.

The extracted petroleum is transported via risers from this wellhead to the production facilities on the semi-submersible platform. These production systems can operate in water depths of up to 6,000 feet.

Tension leg platforms

Tension leg platforms are larger versions of the Seastar platform. The long, flexible legs are attached to the seafloor, and run up to the platform itself. As with the Seastar platform, these legs allow for significant side to side movement (up to 20 feet), with little vertical movement. Tension leg platforms can operate as deep as 7,000 feet.

Subsea system

Subsea production systems are wells located on the sea floor, as opposed to at the surface. As in a floating production system, the petroleum is extracted at the seafloor, and then can be ‘tied-back’ to an already existing production platform. The well can be drilled by a moveable rig, and instead of building a production platform for that well, the extracted oil and natural gas can be transported by a riser or even undersea pipeline to a nearby production platform. This allows one strategically placed production platform to service many wells over a reasonably large area. Subsea systems are typically in use at depths of 7,000 feet or more, and do not have the ability to drill, only to extract and transport.

Spar Platforms

Spar platforms are among the largest offshore platforms in use. These huge platforms consist of a large cylinder supporting a typical fixed rig platform. The cylinder however does not extend all the way to the seafloor, but instead is tethered to the bottom by a series of cables and lines. The large cylinder serves to stabilize the platform in the water, and allows for movement to absorb the force of potential hurricanes. The first Spar platform in the Gulf of Mexico was installed in September of 1996. It’s cylinder measured 770 feet long, and was 70 feet in diameter, and the platform operated in 1,930 feet of water depth.

Design of offshore fixed platforms The most commonly used offshore platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, Nigeria, California shorelines and the Persian Gulf are template type platforms made of steel, and used for oil/gas exploration and production (Sadeghi 1989, 2001).

The design and analyses of these offshore structures must be made in accordance with recommendations published by the American Petroleum Institute (API).

The design and analysis of offshore platforms must be done taking into consideration many factors, including the following important parameters:

• Environmental (initial transportation, and in-place 100-year storm conditions)
• Soil characteristics
• Code requirements (e.g. American Institute of Steel Construction “AISC” codes)
• Intensity level of consequences of failure The entire design, installation, and operation must be approved by the client.

Different analyses needed for template platforms

Different main analyses required for design of a template (jacket) type platform are as follows (Sadeghi 2001):

• In-place analysis
• Earthquake analysis
• Fatigue analysis
• Impact analysis
• Temporary analysis
• Loadout analysis
• Transportation analysis
• Appurtenances analysis
• Lift/Launch analysis
• Upending analysis
• Uprighting analysis
• Unpiled stability analysis
• Pile and conductor pipe drivability analysis
• Cathodic protection analysis
• Transportation analysis
• Installation analysis.

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EMERGENCY OVERVIEW

Hydrogen Sulfide(H2S) is a toxic, flammable, colorless, liquefied gas. Hydrogen Sulfide has a distinct “rotten-egg” smell. The odor cannot be relied on as an adequate warning of the presence of Hydrogen Sulfide because at high concentrations olfactory fatigue occurs. Inhalation of high concentrations of this gas can result in unconsciousness, coma, and death. Direct contact with liquid Hydrogen Sulfide can cause frostbite. Hydrogen Sulfide poses an immediate fire hazard when mixed with air. The gas is heavier than air, and may spread long distances. Distant ignition and flashback are possible. Flame or high temperature impinging on a localized area of a cylinder of Hydrogen Sulfide can cause the cylinder to explode without activating the cylinder’s relief devices. Provide adequate fire protection during emergency response situations. Contact with the liquid (or, contact with rapidly expanding gases) may cause frostbite.

ACUTE POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS:

ROUTES OF EXPOSURE:

EYE CONTACT:

Inflammation and irritation of the eyes can occur at very low airborne concentration (less than 10 ppm). Exposure over several hours may result in “gas eyes” or “sore eyes” with symptoms of scratchiness, irritation, tearing and burning. Above 50 ppm, there is an intense tearing, blurring of vision, and pain when looking at light. Exposed individuals may see rings around bright lights. Most symptoms disappear when exposure ceases. However, in serious cases, the eye can be permanently damaged. In addition to irritation, contact of the eyes with the liquid can cause frostbite.

INGESTION:

Ingestion of Hydrogen Sulfide is not a likely route of industrial exposure. INHALATION: Inhalation of high concentrations of Hydrogen Sulfide can cause dizziness, headache, and nausea. Exposure to higher concentrations can result in respiratory arrest, coma, or unconsciousness. Exposure for more than 30 minutes at concentrations of greater than 600 ppm have been fatal. Continuous inhalation of low concentrations may cause olfactory fatigue, so that the odor is no longer an effective warning of the presence of Hydrogen Sulfide. Severe exposures which do not result in death may cause long-term symptoms such as memory loss, paralysis of facial muscles, or nerve tissue damage.

SKIN CONTACT:

The gas may be irritating to the skin. Direct contact with liquid or rapidly expanding gases (which are released under high pressure) may cause frostbite. Symptoms of frostbite include change in skin color to white or grayish-yellow. The pain after contact with liquid can quickly subside.

POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF REPEATED EXPOSURE:

ROUTE OF ENTRY: Inhalation, skin contact

TARGET ORGANS: Respiratory system, skin, central nervous system.

SYMPTOMS: The most significant symptoms of chronic, low level exposure are related to the central nervous system, with potential nerve tissue damage. Repeated low level skin exposure may cause dermatitis.

MEDICAL CONDITIONS AGGRAVATED BY OVEREXPOSURE: Acute or chronic respiratory conditions or eye disorders may be aggravated by over-exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide.

CARCINOGENICITY: Hydrogen Sulfide is not found on the FEDERAL OSHA Z LIST, NTP, CAL/OSHA, or IARC Carcinogenicity lists.

FIRST AID MEASURES

EYE CONTACT: If liquid is splashed into eyes, or if irritation of the eye develops after exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide, open victim’s eyes while under gentle, lukewarm, running water. Use sufficient force to open eyelids. Have victim “roll” eyes. Minimum flushing is for 15 minutes. Victim must seek immediate medical attention from an ophthalmologist.

INGESTION: Ingestion is an unlikely route of exposure for Hydrogen Sulfide.

INHALATION: Remove victim(s) to fresh air, as quickly as possible. Trained personnel should administer supplemental oxygen and/or cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, if necessary.

SKIN CONTACT: If liquid is spilled on skin, or if irritation of the skin develops after exposure to liquid or gas, immediately begin decontamination with running water. Minimum flushing is for 15 minutes. Remove exposed or contaminated clothing, taking care not to contaminate eyes. Victim must seek immediate medical attention. In case of frostbite, place the frostbitten part in warm water.

DO NOT USE HOT WATER. If warm water is not available, or is impractical to use, wrap the affected parts gently in blankets. Alternatively, if the fingers or hands are frostbitten, place the affected area in the armpit. Encourage victim to gently exercise the affected part while being warmed. Seek immediate medical attention.

NOTES TO PHYSICIANS: Administer oxygen, if necessary and treat symptoms. Be observant for initial signs of pulmonary edema.

FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES

FLASH POINT: Flammable gas

AUTO IGNITION: 500 °F (260 °C)

FLAMMABLE RANGE: (LEL): 4.0% (UEL): 44.0%

EXTINGUISHING MEDIA:

Extinguish Hydrogen Sulfide fires by shutting-off the source of the gas. Use water spray to cool fire-exposed containers, structures, and equipment. Other appropriate extinguishing media are dry chemical, foam, and carbon dioxide.

SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES:

Evacuate all personnel from area. If possible without risk, shut off source of gas, then fight fire according to types of materials burning. Extinguish fire only if gas flow can be stopped. This will avoid possible accumulation and re-ignition of a flammable gas mixture. Keep adjacent cylinders cool by spraying with large amounts of water until the fire burns itself out. For small releases, if it is not possible to stop the leak, and it does not endanger personnel, let the fire burn itself out. Incipient fire res-ponders should wear eye protection. Structural fire fighters must wear Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus and full protective equipment, including fire resistant clothing. Large fires should be fought from a distance with an unmanned hose holder or monitor nozzles. If this product is involved in a fire, fire run-off water should be contained to prevent possible environmental damage. If necessary, decontaminate fire-response equipment with soap and water solution.

UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS:

Most cylinders are designed to vent contents when exposed to elevated temperatures. Pressure in a cylinder can build-up due to heat and it may rupture if pressure relief devices should fail to function. An extreme explosion hazard exists in areas in which the gas has been released but the material has not yet ignited.

HAZARDOUS COMBUSTION PRODUCTS: Oxides of sulphur

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

STEPS TO BE TAKEN IF MATERIAL IS RELEASED OR SPILLED:

Evacuate immediate area. Eliminate any possible sources of ignition, and provide maximum explosion-proof ventilation. Shut off source of leak, if possible. Isolate any leaking cylinder. If leak is from container, pressure relief device or its valve, contact your supplier. If leak is in user’s system, close cylinder valve, safely vent pressure and purge with inert gas before attempting repairs. Protection of all personnel and the area must be maintained. All res-ponders must be adequately protected from exposure. Monitoring should be done for the levels of Hydrogen Sulfide. Colorimetric tubes are available to detect the presence of Hydrogen Sulfide. Levels of Hydrogen Sulfide should be below levels listed in Section 2 (Composition / Information on Ingredients) and the atmosphere must have at least 19.5% oxygen before personnel can be allowed in the area without Self-contained breathing apparatus. Combustible vapor levels must be below 0.4%, which is 10% of the LEL of Hydrogen Sulfide, prior to entry.

HANDLING AND STORAGE

STORAGE: Store cylinders in a well-ventilated, secure area, protected from the weather. Cylinders should be stored up-right with valve outlet seals and valve protection caps in place. Storage should be away from heavily traveled areas and emergency exits. There should be no sources of ignition. All electrical equipment should be explosion-proof in the storage areas. Storage areas must meet National Electrical Codes for Class 1 hazardous areas. Flammable storage areas should be separated from oxygen and other oxidizers by a minimum distance of 20 ft. or by a barrier of non-combustible material at least 5 ft. high, having a fire resistance rating of at least 1/2 hour. Post “No Smoking or Open Flames” signs in the storage and use areas. Do not allow storage temperature to exceed 125 °F (52 °C). Full and empty cylinders should be segregated. Use a first-in, first-out inventory system to prevent full containers from being stored for long periods of time. Consideration should be taken to install leak detection and alarm equipment for storage areas.

HANDLING: Do not drag, roll, slide or drop cylinder. Use a suitable hand truck designed for cylinder movement. Never attempt to lift a cylinder by its cap. Secure cylinders at all times while in use. Use a pressure reducing regulator to safely discharge product from cylinder. Use a check valve to prevent reverse flow into cylinder. Never apply flame or localized heat directly to any part of the cylinder. Once cylinder has been connected to properly purged and inerted process, open cylinder valve slowly and carefully. If user experiences any difficulty operating cylinder valve, discontinue use and contact supplier. Never insert an object (e.g., wrench, screwdriver, etc.) into valve cap openings. Doing so may damage valve, causing a leak to occur. Use an adjustable strap-wrench to remove over-tight or rusted caps. All piped systems and associated equipment must be grounded. Electrical equipment should be non-sparking or explosion-proof.

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS: Be aware of any signs of dizziness or fatigue; exposures to fatal concentrations of Hydrogen Sulfide could occur without any significant warning symptoms. All work operations should be monitored in such a way that emergency personnel can be immediately contacted in the event of a release. All work practices should minimize the release of Hydrogen Sulfide

Always store and handle compressed gas cylinders in accordance with Compressed Gas Association, Inc. (telephone 703-412-0900) pamphlet CGA P-1, Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers. Local regulations may require specific equipment for storage and use.

EXPOSURE CONTROLS / PERSONAL PROTECTION

ENGINEERING CONTROLS:

VENTILATION: Hydrogen Sulfide detectors should be installed in or near areas where Hydrogen Sulfide is being used or stored. If appropriate, install automatic monitoring equipment to detect the level of oxygen and the presence of potentially explosive air-gas mixtures. Because of the high hazard associated with Hydrogen Sulfide, stringent control measures such as a gas cabinet enclosure or isolation may be necessary. Provide natural or explosion-proof ventilation adequate to ensure Hydrogen Sulfide does not reach exposure limits listed in Section 2. (Composition / Information on Ingredients). Local exhaust ventilation is preferred, because it prevents gas dispersion into the work place by eliminating it at its source.

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:

Maintain exposure levels of Hydrogen Sulfide below the levels listed in Section 2 (Composition / Information on Ingredients). Use supplied air respiratory protection if Hydrogen Sulfide levels exceed exposure limits or during emergency response to a release of this product. If respiratory protection is required, follow the requirements of the Federal OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.134), or equivalent State standards. The following NIOSH respiratory protection recommendations are for Hydrogen Sulfide. Up to 100 ppm – Powered air purifying respirator with cartridge(s) to protect against hydrogen sulfide; or gas mask with canister to protect against hydrogen sulfide; or SAR; or full-face piece SCBA.

Emergency Use: Emergency or Planned Entry into Unknown Concentration or IDLH Conditions: Positive pressure, full-face piece SCBA; or positive pressure, full-face piece SAR with an auxiliary positive pressure SCBA. Gas mask with canister to protect against hydrogen sulfide; or escape-type SCBA. The IDLH concentration for Hydrogen Sulfide is 100 ppm. High concentrations may be within the flammable range and must not be entered.

EYE PROTECTION: Safety glasses. Additionally, face-shields should be worn if there is a potential for contact with liquid Hydrogen Sulfide. Eye wash stations/safety showers should be near areas where Hydrogen Sulfide is used or stored.

SKIN PROTECTION: Work gloves are recommended when handling cylinders of Hydrogen Sulfide. Use thermally insulated gloves when working with containers of Liquid Hydrogen Sulfide. Wear chemically-resistant gloves when using this gas. Butyl rubber, chlorinated polyethylene, neoprene nitrile, and polyvinyl rubber are recommended. Use fire-resistant gloves and clothing in emergency situations. Use double gloves for spill response.

OTHER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT: Use body protection appropriate for task. Static-resistant clothing is recommended. Safety shoes are recommended when handling cylinders. Transfer of large quantities under pressure may require use of fire retardant and/or chemically impervious clothing.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

APPEARANCE, ODOR AND STATE: Colorless gas. The liquid is also colorless. The odor for both the liquid and gas is similar to that of “rotten eggs”.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 34.08 BOILING POINT (1 atm): -76.4 °F (-60.2 °C)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (also called vapor density) (air = 1): 1.189

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (of liquid) (At 59 °F (15 °C)): 0.79

FREEZING/MELTING POINT: -117.2 °F (-82.9 °C)

VAPOR PRESSURE (At 70 F (21.1 C): 248.9 psig

GAS DENSITY (At 68 F (20 C) and 1 atm): 0.088 lb/ft3

SOLUBILITY IN WATER (At 68 F (20 C): 0.317 lb/gal

STABILITY AND REACTIVITY

CHEMICAL STABILITY: Stable CONDITIONS TO AVOID: Cylinders should not be exposed to temperatures in excess of 125 °F (52 °C). INCOMPATIBILITY (Materials to Avoid): Hydrogen Sulfide is a strong reducing agent and is highly reactive. Hydrogen Sulfide is not compatible with the following materials: oxidizing agents, organic peroxides, alkaline materials, metals (i.e. copper, lead), and metal oxides. Hydrogen Sulfide is corrosive to most metals, because it reacts with these substances to form metal sulfides.

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Assembly Area Safety Rules

Assembly Area Safety Rules. The company expects workers to follow its safety rules. By signing, you will be held responsible for following these safety rules. Disciplinary action could result when these safety rules are not followed. These safety rules are for your safety only. Please use these safety rules on the job site to keep yourself and others safe.
•Employees must wear their seat belts when driving on company business.
•Report to work free from the aftereffects of drugs or alcohol.
•Report maintenance needs or hazards before the end of your work shift.
•Report incidents or injuries before the end of your work shift.
•Horseplay is prohibited.
•Do not climb on racking or shelving.
•Keep emergency eyewash stations clear.
•Keep fire exits clear, unblocked and unlocked.
•Fire exit and emergency lighting should be lit and battery backups should function.
•Keep fire extinguishers and fire alarm pull stations clear.
•Do not bypass safety devices on hand or power tools.
•Wear eye protection to protect your eyes from flying objects.
•Wear hearing protection when exposed to loud machines or noise.
•Clean up spills of liquid and water.
•Do not run.
•Straighten floor runners or rugs that could trip fellow employees.
•Keep desk chairs and desk drawers pushed in when not in use.
•Know severe weather shelter locations within the building.
•To reach items use a proper foot stool or ladder and never stand on chairs or desks.
•Get help to team lift heavy objects like supplies, components or tools.
•Operate forklifts only if you are trained and authorized.
•Wear your seat belt when operating forklifts.
•Report security concerns, door locks or security system components that don’t function.
•Wear proper footwear on the job and during winter weather.
•Scan for trip hazards in the parking lot.

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AMPUTATIONS IN THE WORKPLACE

AMPUTATIONS IN THE WORKPLACE

sources of amputations in the workplace?Amputations are some of the most serious and debilitating workplace injuries. They are widespread and involve a variety of activities and equipment. Amputations occur most often when workers operate unguarded or inadequately safeguarded mechanical power presses, power press brakes, powered and non-powered conveyors, printing presses, roll-forming and roll bending machines, food slicers, meat grinders, meat-cutting band saws, drill presses, and milling machines as well as shears, grinders, and slitters. These injuries also happen during materials handling activities and when using forklifts and doors as well as trash compactors and powered and non-powered hand tools. Besides normal operation, the following activities involving stationary machines also expose workers to potential amputation hazards: settingup, threading, preparing, adjusting, cleaning, lubricating, and maintaining machines as well as clearing jams.

 What types of machine components are hazardous?

The following types of mechanical components present amputation hazards:

Point of operation—the area of a machine where it performs work on material.

Power-transmission apparatuses—flywheels, pulleys, belts, chains, couplings, spindles, cams, and gears in addition to connecting rods and other machine components that transmit energy.

Other moving parts—machine components that move during machine operation such as reciprocating, rotating, and transverse moving parts as well as auxiliary machine parts.

What kinds of mechanical motion are hazardous?

All mechanical motion is potentially hazardous. In addition to in-running nip points (“pinch points”)—which occur when two parts move together and at least one moves in a rotary or circular motion that gears, rollers, belt drives, and pulleys generate—the following are the most common types of hazardous mechanical motion:

Rotating—circular movement of couplings, cams, clutches, flywheels, and spindles as well as shaft ends and rotating collars that may grip clothing or otherwise force a body part into a dangerous location.

Reciprocating—back-and-forth or up-and down action that may strike or entrap a worker between a moving part and a fixed object.

Transversing—movement in a straight, continuous line that may strike or catch a worker in a pinch or shear point created between the moving part and a fixed object.

Cutting—action generated during sawing, boring, drilling, milling, slicing, and slitting.

Punching—motion resulting when a machine moves a slide (ram) to stamp or blank metal or other material.

Shearing—movement of a powered slide or knife during metal trimming or shearing.

Bending—action occurring when power is applied to a slide to draw or form metal or other materials.

What can employers do to help protect workers from amputations?

You should be able to recognize, identify, manage, and control amputation hazards commonly found in the workplace such as those caused by mechanical components of machinery, the mechanical motion that occurs in or near these components, and the activities that workers perform during mechanical operation. Work practices, employee training, and administrative controls can help prevent and control amputation hazards. Machine safeguarding with the following equipment is the best way to control amputations caused by stationary machinery:

Guards provide physical barriers that prevent access to hazardous areas. They should be secure and strong, and workers should not be able to bypass, remove, or tamper with them. Guards should not obstruct the operator’s view or prevent employees from working.

Devices help prevent contact with points of operation and may replace or supplement guards. Devices can interrupt the normal cycle of the machine when the operator’s hands are at the point of operation, prevent the operator from reaching into the point of operation, or withdraw the operator’s hands if they approach the point of operation when the machine cycles. They must allow safe lubrication and maintenance and not create hazards or interfere with normal machine operation. In addition, they should be secure, tamperresistant, and durable.

You are responsible for safeguarding machines and should consider this need when purchasing machinery. New machinery is usually available with safeguards installed by the manufacturer. You can also purchase appropriate safeguards separately or build them in-house.

Are certain jobs particularly hazardous for some employees?

Yes. Under the Fair Labor Standards Act, the Secretary of Labor has designated certain nonfarm jobs as especially hazardous for employees under the age of 18. These workers generally are prohibited from operating band saws, circular saws, guillotine shears, punching and shearing machines, meatpacking or meat-processing machines, paper products machines, woodworking machines, metal-forming machines, and meat slicers.